Written by Esther Verhaegh
Nollywood, the Lagos based film industry in Nigeria, has become one of the biggest film industries in the world. Nollywood produces 1200 movies a year and generates three billion US dollars a year.[1] When the phenomenon ‘Nollywood’ was introduced in the early 2000s, it was argued that the Nigerian film industry was merely a copycat of ‘Hollywood’. However, as became clear over the years, Nollywood is built on various cultural, national and international influences. Nollywood is often regarded as an informal film industry. Movies are often shot with simple basic material, the places for shooting are scattered across Lagos and nearby villages and the distribution takes place along informal channels.[2] Migrants from the continent contributed to the transnational character of the industry. Nollywood productions surpassed national boundaries to reach diaspora and migrants from the continent. Over the years, Nollywood has received much scholarly attention. In his book Nollywood: The Creation of Nigerian Film Genres, Jonathan Haynes explores the social history of Nollywood and investigates the different film genres.[3] In Nollywood in Glocal Perspective edited by Bala A. Musa explores the different local and global dynamics, which influenced Nollywood over the years. Some scholars have paid attention to the consumption of Nollywood movies amongst migrants and diaspora communities, but not much attention has been paid to the aspect of gender. Nollywood movies have contributed to a certain ‘image’ of women in society.[4] They attribute certain values and norms to the role of women in society. Several scholars have criticized these stereotypical images. However, over the years new Nollywood movies have been produced which have portrayed women in different ways. For example, the movie Lion Heart is about a who woman wants to take over her father’s company. This movie critically reflects upon the male- female relations in Nigerian society. The reception and consumption of these ‘new’ movies amongst the diaspora community has not yet been investigated. This research will focus on 5 women from the Nigerian diaspora. How do women in within the Nigerian Diasporic community in the U.K. perceive Nollywood movies? What impact do Nollywood movies have on their feelings of belonging and connectivity?
Throughout the years several scholars have researched Nollywood movies and the reception of these movies in the diaspora. In their article ‘Nollywood online: between the individual consumption and communal reception of Nigerian films among African diaspora’, Dekie Afra et all study the reception of Nollywood movies among the African diaspora. Although their research offers interesting insights in how people in the diaspora consume Nollywood movies, their study focusses on the diaspora from different countries. Therefore, the study does not indicate what impact ‘Nigerian’ identity has on the consumption of these movies. This research will focus on women who identify as Nigerian and are living in Manchester, UK.
There have been few scholars who have reflected upon the portrayal of women in Nollywood movies. However, Adedayo Ladigbolu Abah has explicitly focused on women and has investigated Nollywood films through a cultural analysis. According to Abah the status of women on the professional and political level has improved.[5] However, the social norms have not changed. Women are still subjected to domestic and social roles. Although, some women have produced movies in the Nollywood business, women have not yet been able to break away from this dominant narrative. According to Abah a solution could include Nollywood movies which portray a different narrative on women in domestic life.[6] Although, the paper offers interesting insights into the manner in which women have been portrayed in Nollywood movies, the paper does not include perceptions of women themselves. Women in several countries have been watching Nollywood movies. Recently, the worldwide streaming service, Netflix has launched several Nollywood movies which have been produced by women and include a strong female lead. This paper will focus explicitly on these ‘new’ movies and the perceptions of women on these ‘new’ movies. Based on the views of women this paper will reveal whether or not these movies expose a new narrative with different domestic and social roles for women.
Olushola Aromona has studied Nollywood movies through content analysis and concluded that the women are still portrayed as housewives, sex objects and as the “weaker sex”.[7] These movies reinforce socio-cultural norms that women should be domesticated; can be objectified and cannot have the same ambitions as men. These stereotypical images of women are problematic, because people intend to internalize images and narratives which are presented by media outlets.[8] Although Aromona offers interesting insights into the portrayal of women in Nollywood movies the research was published in 2016. After 2016 Netflix launched several Nollywood movies on their streaming services. Some of these movies were produced and directed by women and clearly renounced stereotypical images of women. This research will focus on several movies which produced ‘new narratives’ and investigate how women in the diaspora perceive these narratives.
Chapter 1 will provide the theoretical framework and focus on theories of identity and diaspora. Chapter 2 will unravel the concept of Nollywood movies. Chapter 3 will analyze the reception of Nollywood movies amongst women in the Nigerian diaspora. The concluding statement will give an answer to the main research question: How do women in the Nigerian Diasporic community in the U.K. perceive Nollywood movies?
1. Identity & the Diaspora
The perceptions of women in the Nigerian diaspora are central in this paper. In order to understand their views this chapter will introduce a theoretical framework, which includes theories on the African diaspora, gender and audience reception.
1.1 Detangling ‘the diaspora’
Over the years many scholars have dedicated research to diasporas from multiple countries. Although, interpretations of diasporic communities differ, three characteristics have often been attributed to diasporas. Diasporic groups are dispersed over at least two destinations. This dispersal contributes to the creation of different connections, which differentiate diasporas from other migration groups. Moreover, there must be a relation to the homeland. Furthermore, the people within the diaspora must be self-aware of their group identity. This self-awareness binds the group of people together.[10]Although, these characteristics may apply to diasporas, it should be made clear that the identities of people within diasporas are not fixed and evolve over time. Kim Butler has acknowledged this problem and introduced a theoretical framework for scholars in order to study and compare diasporic communities. According to Butler the study of diasporas has several categories.[11] One of these categories is the relationship to the homeland. Several sources may attribute to this identity, for example a common language, but the ties to the homeland are essential to a diasporic identity.[12] This is essential in the understanding of the Nigerian diaspora in the UK. Nigeria has over 60 different ethnicities, with multiple languages. Within the boundaries of Nigeria there are multiple cultural differences. As this research will reveal the ties to Nigeria and the imagination of Nigeria amongst the interviewees created a connection, which manifests itself in a diasporic identity. Although, there are other categories within the study of diasporas, this research will mainly focus on this category.
Another useful addition to the study of diasporas is given by Roza Tsagarousianou. Tsagarousianou states that studies of diasporas have often focused on ethnicity and displacement.[13] In these studies complex transnational flows and interlinkages have been overlooked. Instead, Tsagarousianou proposes to link the phenomenon of diaspora to notions of connectivity.[14] Within recent waves of migration communication infrastructures have contributed to complex webs of connectivity, in which diasporas have been able to narrate and (re-)construct their identities. Placing diasporas in the center of these connections and networks, will reveal a more inclusive and heterogenic understanding of diasporic communities. Tsagarousianou argues that (diasporic) media technologies have played an important role in this process.[15] The role of (new) media technologies is of importance for this research. In the early days Nollywood movies were distributed on local markets. Although, movies were exchanged through videos and DVDs, the introduction of these movies on YouTube or Netflix should not be underestimated. Both platforms have provided Nollywood with a global stage, which is easily accessible. Tsagarousianou’s approach is useful in understanding the links between (new) media technologies, Nollywood and the diasporic identity of Nigerian women in the UK.
In the study of diasporas and diasporic identities, the ideas of Stuart Hall cannot be left out of the theoretical framework. According to Hall there are two different positions in the study diasporas and cultural identities.[16] The first position understands cultural identity as a collective which comprises common historical experiences and shared cultural codes. According to this essentializing approach cultural identity is something waiting to be discovered. The second position (which is taken by Hall himself) is that cultural identity is not something which exceeds time and place. Rather cultural identities are social constructs shaped by memories and historical narratives.[17] The latter approach relates to Benedict Anderson’s view of imagined communities.[18] According to this idea diasporic identities are dynamic and (re-)constructed over time and place. This research exposes that the cultural identities of women in the Nigerian diaspora are (re-)constructed and formed through narratives within Nollywood movies. However, the cultural codes within the narratives are not static. The Nigerian female diaspora is actively involved in the process of meaning-making. They are able to perform agency over the construction of these narratives and cultural codes.
1.2 The ‘African’ diaspora
The migration of African people across the world can be traced back for centuries. Several scholars have dedicated studies too those waves of migration and the construction of the African diaspora. In his book The African Diaspora: A history through culture Patrick Manning provides the reader with an in-depth overview of the historical development of the interconnectedness of Africans and the African diaspora over the world.[19] According to Manning the African diaspora should be understood according to 4 types of connections: 1) interactions among black communities, 2) their interactions with hegemonic powers, 3) their interactions with non-African communities and 4) mixing of communities.[20] Manning states that these interactions have shaped the African diaspora. Furthermore, the book of Manning explores a range of different themes. One, of those themes is culture. As Manning states a focus on history through culture will reveal perceptions of black people on their lives.[21] A similar approach will be taken in this research. This approach is grounded in the ideas of Achille Mbembe presented in his book On the Postcolony. According to Mbembe there have not been many discourses on ‘Africa’. As a result, the reasons which shape the actions of African agents have been overlooked by scholars.[22] By focusing on Nollywood movies this research intends to unravel a part of African popular culture, which has only existed since the 90s. By focusing on perceptions of women within the Nigerian diaspora, this paper reveals how ideas on modernity, presented in these movies may contribute to the construction of their diasporic identity.
Another prominent scholar in the field of field of the African diaspora is Paul Gilroy. In his book The Black Atlantic: Modernity and Double Consciousness, Gilroy develops a theory around Britain’s black citizens. According to Gilroy the history of the African diaspora should be understood through the Atlantic.[23] Although, Black Britain’s and Afro-Americans are different communities, they share similar experiences. The slave ships on the Atlantic and travels from Afro-American intellectuals between Europe, Africa, America and the Caribbean created a complex web of transnational linkages. Gilroy argues that this forms a transnational analytical framework through which African diasporas can be studied.[24] By focusing his study on black popular music Gilroy analyzes black Atlantic politics. He argues that the music is a counterculture of modernity which finds its presence in cultural and political struggles of their descendants today.[25] The work of Gilroy has been very influential in the field of cultural studies and African diasporas. Although his work offers valuable insights for understanding diasporic identities. The study of Gilroy has focused on migrations related to the ‘Black Atlantic’. According to Paul Zeleza much of the literature on the African diaspora has focused on the Atlantic world, hereby ignoring the plural and global character of African diasporas.[26] Although there are connections between the US and Britain, the narratives and histories of black British citizens should not be absorbed by African American popular culture. By focusing on Nollywood this paper will shed a different light on the narratives and histories of black British citizens.
Another critique of Gilroy’s work is his inability to critically reflect upon gender relations in his theory. As a result, Gilroy has privileged the role of males in the construction of the Black Atlantic. The gendering of narratives in the African diaspora, contributes to a more inclusive understanding of the African diaspora. In order to analyze the perceptions of women in the Nigerian diaspora it is necessary to include gender into the theoretical framework. Therefore, this paper will build on Kimberlé Crenshaw’s theory of intersectionality. According to Crenshaw feminist discourses and anti-racist discourses have often failed to acknowledge the intersection of race and gender.[27] Rather anti-racist discourses have ignored issues of patriarchy, while feminist discourses have ignored issues of race. Consequently, anti-racist discourses have strengthened the subordination of women, while feminist discourses have hardened the subordination of people of color.[28] As a result, women of color are marginalized within both discourses. By focusing on women in the Nigerian diaspora this research will reveal the intersection of these discourses. The analysis will reveal how both ethnicity and gender play a role in the consumption of Nollywood movies. Instead of discussing these themes in a mutually exclusive manner, Crenshaw’s theory will be used to unify them.
1.3 Film audience
The former paragraphs have constructed a theoretical framework of African diasporas. However, since this research will focus on the Nigerian diaspora as audience of Nollywood, it is essential to understand the manner in which producers encode messages into their films. In order to understand the complex relation between producers and audiences, this paragraph will build on Stuart Hall’s theory of encoding and decoding. According to Hall the circulation of messages within communication constitute different stages.[29] Although, these stages operate independently they are related. Hall states that the production of television produces a message. This process of producing the message is in itself a complex process of meaning-making. In this process the message must entail a meaningful discourse and be decoded. In the process of decoding the message integrates into the structures of social practices. According to Hall the reception of this message cannot merely be understood in terms of behavior. According to Hall the power relations between the producer and the receiver of the message have an impact on the encoding and decoding of messages.[30] Although encoding and decoding are related, the encoded message cannot guarantee the decoding. In order to understand the process of decoding and audience reception, Hall introduces three stages within the ‘television discourse’. 1) dominant-hegemonic position, in which the audience decodes the message in reference to the dominant code in which the message is encapsulated. 2) negotiated position, in which the audience acknowledges hegemonic definitions, but has reservations about the message. 3) oppositional position, in which viewers reject the hegemonic code of the message and attribute an alternative meaning to the text.[31] These three interpretations of decoding are of use for this research, because this paper intends to interpret the perceptions of the Nigerian diaspora of Nollywood movies. While the interviewees accept some of the messages encoded within Nollywood films, they reject or re-negotiate others. Especially, when addressing the aspect of gender, it becomes clear that they reject certain narratives within these movies. Several Nollywood, which of have been produced in the past few years, carry different narratives in relation to gender. This research will reveal that these different narratives lead to a different position in decoding the message. Before, analyzing the perceptions of the interviewees. The next will unravel the concept of Nollywood.
2. Global Nollywood
The previous chapter established a theoretical framework through which the interviews can be interpreted. However, before turning to the analysis of the perceptions of women within the Nigerian diaspora in the UK, this chapter will turn to the Nigerian film industry known as Nollywood. In order to get a deeper understanding of the Nigerian-based film industry this chapter will analyze the historical development of Nollywood. The question central to this chapter is: how has Nollywood developed itself as a product of African popular culture?
2.1 The historical development of Nollywood
In the 1980s the Structural Adjustment Policies contributed to the devaluation of the Nigerian currency. The economic crisis had a big impact on the national film industry. Film theaters closed; the budget of film producers shrank end there was a decline in video rentals.[32] The downfall of the economy in Nigeria contributed to a demise in the production celluloid films. Instead film producers switched to the production of home videos and films were sold on video cassettes. The early Nollywood home videos were partly scripted and partly improvised by actors using basic sets and shots of the city. People were able to make films without adhering to any clear standards or qualifications. This contributed to an explosion of home videos in the 1990s. Although the technique of video shooting already appeared in the 1980s, the establishment of the Nollywood film industry is often traced back to the movie ‘Living in Bondage’ (1992).[33] The movie included professional actors and was distributed through similar channels as Hollywood movies in Nigeria. The movie was a commercial success and inspired businessmen to go into film production and marketing.[34] However, as stated by Shaibu Husseini and Oloruntola Sunday it would be incorrect to argue that Nollywood started after the making of ‘Living in Bondage’.[35]As mentioned, home videos were already produced in the 1980s. Rather the movie demonstrated that the Nigerian production of home videos was a fruitful business.
In 2010 the concept ‘New Nollywood’ was introduced by several people within the Nigerian movie business. The words referred to a new phase in Nollywood production. Since the 1990s Nollywood movies had been distributed on video compact discs (VCDs). This release method made Nollywood movies prone to piracy. Furthermore, tv broadcasting and internet streaming of Nollywood films contributed to a decline in VCDs purchases.[36] These developments have contributed to creation of a ‘New Nollywood’. These ‘New Nollywood’ films represent a new set of aesthetics, which are meant for international markets. Furthermore, the movies appear in theater before they are released on DVD. This constitutes a break with ‘traditional’ Nollywood films, which were mainly distributed on (local) markets. The New Nollywood are produced with a higher budget than traditional Nollywood movies and have a metropolitan character as they normalize consumerism, fashion brands and global pop culture.[37] However, as pointed out by Connor Ryan these ‘New Nollywood’ movies exacerbate a wealthy metropolitan lifestyle, which do not reflect the daily lives of many Nigerians.[38]
2.2 Nollywood as a cultural product
According to Karin Barber popular culture in Africa is the product of everyday experiences of ‘ordinary people’.[39]Barber states that Western media have a constructed a short-sighted view of the lived experiences of men, women and children in Africa. NGOs have created a distorted image of African countries as poor and conflict-ridden. At the other end of the stick, African culture has been portrayed as tribal and exotic. A focus on popular modes of expression such as music and film can reveal the lived experiences of daily life.[40] Barber states that these cultural outlets contain historical memories as well as novel ideas about the present (or future).[41] In her book Barber addresses Nollywood as one of these cultural products. Nollywood films often characterized by extravagance, narrative oppositions, shocking revelations and moral components. The Nigerian (and African) public have praised the movies for their ‘Africanity’ and their proximity to daily issues.[42]
Observing Nollywood as a cultural aesthetic from Nigeria has let to critique from several scholars in the field of cultural studies and people from Nigeria. Many Nollywood movies include rituals of witchcraft and juju rituals.[43] This level of spirituality is not present in the daily lives of many Nigerians. However, this is not a reason to discard Nollywood in cultural studies. As stated by Onookome Okome Nollywood playfully portrays societal narratives, which are effective in reaching the masses.[44] Nollywood is able to reach the masses, because of discussing social matters. The fact that Nollywood is close to society but does not always correspond to the real world is no reason to discard it. Nollywood films are constructed and produced within the bounds of a patrimonial state and should be regarded as a grassroots social document in Nigeria’s social and cultural history.
Since the launching of the movie ‘Living in Bondage’ in the 1990s, Nollywood has developed itself into a global industry. Several African countries within the continent took over film techniques of Nollywood movies and Nollywood has traveled over the world and reached diasporic communities. The reasons for its appeal amongst African diasporas are plentiful. In his analysis of African diasporas and Nollywood Esan argues that Nollywood films are a means for diasporas to connect to their home culture.[45] Also, people thought that cultural beliefs and practices could be transmitted.[46] In an ethnographic analysis of Nollywood consumption amongst Nigerian in Turin, Italy, Giovanna Santanera revealed that diasporas watched Nollywood in order to deal with feelings of estrangement in a foreign country. Furthermore, it provided the diaspora to process the hardships of migration and the impact their experiences had on their identity.[47]Although, some of these explanations may also apply to women in the Nigerian diaspora in the UK, there is are two aspects which may contribute to different outcomes. First, their female identity will have an impact on the consumption and interpretation of Nollywood. Also, most of the interviewees grew up in the UK. They left Nigeria with their parents at a very young age. The next chapter will uncover the effect of these two factors on their perceptions.
2.3 Conclusion
Nollywood is an aesthetic product of Nigerian and African popular culture. Through addressing social issues which penetrate the daily lives of people in Nigeria, Nollywood movies have appealed to a broad public. Through processes of globalization Nollywood has been exported all over the world. As a result, Nollywood has been able to reach diasporic communities overseas.
3. Nollywood consumption and reception amongst women
The previous chapter focused on Nollywood as a global phenomenon and part of African popular culture. Now I will turn to an analysis of the consumption and reception of Nollywood movies focusing on the ideas of women in the Nigerian diaspora in the UK. I attempt to make an analysis of the interviews. The similarities and differences in the interviews will be studied in order to answer the question: To what extend does Nollywood have an impact on feelings of belonging and connectivity for women in the Nigerian diaspora within the UK?
3.1 Decoding and culture
According to Stuart Hall the understanding and misunderstanding of codes within television discourse is partly dependent on the identity. A lack of similarities between the producers and the audience can lead to misunderstandings.[48]Nollywood movies are produced by Nigerians or people within the Nigerian diaspora abroad. The interviewees have all been living in the UK for a different amount of time. One interviewee left Nigeria when she was two, while another had (partially) attended secondary school in Nigeria. Despite, these differences all of the interviewees identified as Nigerian.[49] However, Nigeria was not the only ‘identity’ which was mentioned. Most of the women also felt British or European.
As mentioned in the previous chapter Nollywood movies could be a cultural instrument amongst Nigerian diasporas in order to (re-)connect with the homeland. Violet argued that Nollywood movies made her feel connected to Nigeria: “It reminds you of the areas, the streets, the houses. It reminds you that this is Nigeria.”.[50] Olivia claimed that she used Nollywood films to keep up with Yoruba language: “I watch a lot of Nollywood movies, especially Yoruba movies… I think it just helps me not to forget the language and keep up with the culture.”.[51] Despite these assertions, the interviews revealed that social media played a superior role in the connection between the women and Nigeria: “Social media is what helps me stay connected, I follow Youtubers and fashion designers on Instagram.”.[52]
When talking about the representation of Nigerian in Nollywood films, the interviewees mentioned that the movies focused on the beautiful sides of Nigeria. This idea of Nigeria was juxtaposed to images and narratives, which often occurred in (Western) media outlets:
“I think a lot of the movies do Nigeria a lot of justice more so than the media does. Nowadays the media just seems to have this idea that all there is in Africa is just poverty and children dying…Nollywood has done so well to change that image, because it shows a lot of beautiful sceneries. And it just makes people realize not all of Africa is underdeveloped.”[53]
In addition, interviewees argued that Nollywood displayed the beauties of Nigerian culture, including food and native clothes.
During the interviews a specific movie was mentioned several times: The Wedding Party. The Wedding Party is Nollywood blockbuster launched in 2016 on the International Film Festival in Toronto. Afterwards, it also became available on online streaming service, Netflix. The romantic comedy tells the story of Dunni (the daughter of Yoruba parents) and Dozie (the son of Igbo parents) who are getting married. Beatrice was explaining how she did not watch Nollywood movies for some time but saw ‘The Wedding Party’. According to Beatrice ‘The Wedding Party’ broke away from stereotypical Nollywood films, whilst still representing Nigerian culture.[54] Beatrice stated that this was typical for other releases as well and that she could relate to these movies:
“Traditionally, Nollywood movies would be in the village. In remote places with all the witchcraft going on… I think a lot of shows and a lot of movies now are more modern and have dilemma that only people that live outside of Nigeria would understand.”[55]
This relates to the production of New Nollywood movies, which have been produced in the last decade. Connor Ryan stated that these movies expose a glamorous lifestyle, which is not relatable for many Nigerians.[56] However, for Liz living in the UK, this lifestyle is more relatable. Although the other interviewees could relate to the modern movies as well, Olivia mentioned that Yoruba movies were more realistic: “You might not always see the beautiful landscapes, like in the big Nollywood movies, but I like watching it, because they are more real they are more raw and in terms of Yoruba culture.”[57]
In the group discussion the movie the Wedding Party was discussed in more detail. The discussion revealed the tension between ‘New Nollywood’ and Nigerian culture. The respondents agreed that the ‘modernity’ and ‘Western styles’ should not lead to the erosion of Nigerian culture.[58] Rather Nollywood should maintain a balance. Beatrice argued that the Wedding Party balanced ‘modernity’ and Nigerian culture: “Actors had the Nigerian accent and some things are being said in Yoruba, ...You can have your modern life and dress differently, but those things still matter.”[59] These statements can be linked to what the ideas presented by Heike Becker. According to Becker the consumption of Nollywood amongst South African youths reflected a process of Afro-modernity, in which African culture was juxtaposed against Western modernity.[60] According to the interviewees Western culture and African culture were juxtaposed in the Wedding party. The mother of the groom embodied Western culture and insisted on ordering Western food for the wedding. The mother of the bride brought her own caterer to the wedding with Nigerian food.[61] According to the interviewees the mother of the groom was acting ‘bougie’ and discarding Nigerian culture.[62] The respondents stated that Nigerians can have a modern lifestyle, but they should not lose sight of their cultural identity. These ideas were also linked to their own lives in the UK: “I think that is similar to the Nigerian household in the UK. You have a flat screen TV, you have your iPhone and everything, but you will still eat pounded yam in the evening…”.[63] This process of Afro-modernity can be linked to Gilroy’s ideas on counterculture of modernity. According to Gilroy the vernacular arts of the Black Atlantic carried a critique on modernity and presented cultural norms of diaspora politics.[64] This counterculture was operating and interacting within the frames of modernity. By critically evaluating these countercultures, Gilroy attempts to overcome the dichotomy between tradition and modernity.[65] The interviewees themselves could relate to the modern lifestyles of people in the movies, whilst emphasize the importance of their own cultural identity.
This process of Afro-modernity was not only related to the consumption of Nollywood but was also related to the representation of Nollywood on ‘the international stage’. Several interviewees argued that it was important that Nollywood was now available on international platforms, such as Netflix so that people could see the day to day experiences of Nigerians and Nigerian culture:
“I think the media portray a lot of poverty and negative things, so that is what people think is happening. When you have movies like that it shows another side… Those movies show that, that is not the only thing that is happening in Africa. Those things are happening, but at the same time there is also a beauty in the culture. What we eat, how we dress, it shouldn’t be viewed as poverty.”[66]
The narratives of the female Nigerian diaspora revealed that their diasporic identity had a big impact on the reception of Nollywood films. Some of the interviewees mentioned that Nollywood movies reminded them of home and helped them remember their culture. Most of the interviewees had watched Nollywood movies, which can be placed in the framework of ‘New Nollywood’. These movies depict a modern, metropolitan lifestyle, which resembled their own lives in the UK. Although, the women could relate to the events in the Wedding party they did not completely operate within the hegemonic-dominant code. Rather the decoding of the message was linked to a negotiated position in which the respondents acknowledged the message but argued that Nigerian culture should remain central in these narratives. Victoria referred to Yoruba culture several times. Her answers revealed the plural character of Nigerian diasporic identity and the impact of this identity on the decoding of the message. According to Victoria, Yoruba films offered a more realistic representation of Nigerian life and culture.
In addition, the interviews revealed that Nollywood represented the lived experiences of people in Nigeria and Africa in general. Instead of devastating images of poverty and violence, Nollywood has been able to show the manner in which people eat and dress. The respondents mentioned that it was important for them that these images reached the ‘world stage’. The interviews revealed the importance of Nollywood finding its way on the international stage.
3.3 Decoding and gender
In her book on gender and West African literature Stephanie Newell states that popular cultural outlets in Nigeria are influenced by parallel gender debates.[67] In these debates marriage and family are seen as an ordering structure in Nigerian society. In these structures women are given roles of devoted housewives and mothers.[68] Adedayo Abah confirms this stereotypical portrayal of women in Nollywood movies. According to Abah narratives on the role of women in social and domestic positions remain unchallenged.[69] The respondents acknowledged the stereotypical representation of women in Nollywood movies by arguing that women are portrayed as the ‘weaker sex’. These narratives were clearly rejected, Beatrice mentioned:
“The portrayal of women can be quite annoying. They’re always subject to something. It’s like the reality, because Nigeria doesn’t say outright that they have something against women. But within the home the man is dominant most of the time.”[70]
These statements reaffirm the dominance of patriarchal structures within the narratives of Nollywood movies and the rejection thereof by women within the Nigerian diaspora. The dismissal of this narrative is influenced by the position of women in the UK. Several interviewees mentioned the different position of women in the UK and in Nigeria.
However, several recent releases reveal different narratives. Lion Heart (2018) a movie by Genevieve Nnaji (who also stars in the movie as the lead character), was mentioned by several of the respondents.[71] The respondents argued that Lion Heart changed the stereotypical narrative of women in Nollywood movies, as the movie portrayed a woman who wanted to succeed her father in the family business. In addition to the manner in which women were portrayed in professional life, Olivia states that the movie Lion Heart was also questioning the social position of women in the domestic domain:
“I’m glad they didn’t force love into her life… I think there was not one moment that she was thinking that she needed to marry or wait for a husband. I like that, because all those movies make you think that all you want to do is get married... I liked the fact that they didn’t force that into the storyline.”[72]
Moreover, movies like Lion Heart were inspiring for some of the interviewees:
“I watched Lion Heart and it shows that what a men can do a woman can do…I want to be in that position to make changes and to do great things for people. I want to be that powerful woman out there. We should never be made a certain type or way…We have ambition, we can’t just put it to waste and just sit at home.”[73]
The movie Lion Heart and other recent releases such as ‘Skinny Girl in Transit’ provided the respondents with the opportunity to reflect upon their female identity. Not only the narratives within the movies contributed to this reflection. The fact that some of the producers were women had an impact on the reception of the movies as well. Rosemary mentioned:
“It’s inspiring, because these movies are directed and produced by females. It shows that we can actually do things. I’m happy to see that we’re stepping up and people in the world can see that and Nigerians as well.”[74]
The fact that these movies were directed and produced by women contributed to the construction of role models for the interviewees.[75] The respondents felt inspired by the narratives of empowered women and clearly rejected conventional narratives in which the roles and aspirations of women are confined to marriage and family life. These findings expose the transformation of an oppositional position to a dominant position. Moreover, as mentioned by Hall power relations between the producer and the audience have an impact on the decoding of the message. In the interviews the respondents did not just mention the narratives within Nollywood films, but also referred to the women, who had produced these movies. Therefore, it can be argued that women producers and creators who created these unconventional narratives, had an impact on the reception of the movies amongst the women.
3.3 Conclusion
Nollywood had an impact on feelings of connectivity and belonging for women in the Nigerian diaspora in the UK. Through Nollywood movies the interviewees were able to connect with their cultural identity as they could relate to certain cultural aspects within films. The gender roles which were ascribed to women in traditional Nollywood movies were opposed by the interviewees. The narratives of women in New Nollywood movies were welcomed and partially contributed to the construction of their female identity as some interviewees mentioned that they felt inspired by the narratives.
4. Conclusion
Nollywood has become one of the biggest film industries in the world. The advancements in telecommunications and new video technologies have allowed Nollywood to spread globally. African diasporic communities have played a central role in the circulation and consumption of Nollywood films. This research focused on the perspectives of women in the Nigerian diaspora in the UK in order to answer the research question: How do women in the Nigerian diasporic community in the U.K. perceive Nollywood movies?
Nollywood films are a cultural product from Nigeria. The consumption of Nollywood movies allowed women to connect with Nigeria and critically reflect upon their own identities. Through watching ‘New Nollywood’ films the respondents created a balance between their lives in the UK and their cultural identity. Nollywood provided them with the means to negotiate between their homeland and the host country. Therefore, Nollywood can be regarded as a process of Afro-modernity. Within Nollywood narratives modernity and Nigerian culture are negotiated. In turn the Nigerian diaspora is able to reflect upon their own identity in relation to these narratives. Therefore, it can be stated that Nollywood has played a role in the construction of a diasporic identity. However, this process is complex and multilayered. The reception of Nollywood films was also influenced by other identities. In case of the interviewees their female identity had an impact on their opinions of stereotypical narratives of women. These narratives were not something the interviewees could identify with and this contributed to the rejection of these narratives. However, the films from ‘New Nollywood’ productions offered more emancipated narratives of women and were cheered by the respondents. This reflection revealed the intersectionality of gender and cultural discourse in the consumption of Nollywood films. Nollywood films enabled women in the Nigerian diaspora to debate and construct their cultural heritage and female identity.
With this research I have contributed to the literature on African popular culture and African diasporas. However, in order to get a better understanding of Nollywood consumption amongst the Nigerian diaspora more data should be collected. This study focused only on the stories of five women in the Nigerian diaspora in the UK. Also, I spoke to women who watched Nollywood films. Future research could also interview women who do not watch Nollywood films in order to get a deeper understanding on Nollywood as a cultural instrument.
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